Abstracts
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Prof. Ekmeleddin Ihsanoglu
"An Overview of Ottoman Scientific Literature"
..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Arabic and Islamic scientific heritage has been the subject of academic interest for decades. The first generation of western scholars was mainly interested in what would be known as the “Golden Age” of Islamic civilization, which meant the first Abbasid period. The pioneers of these historical studies took interest in researching, studying and publishing scientific manuscripts related to the illustrious figures of this “Golden Age”.
The leading studies by Orientalists were emulated and carried on by generations from the Arab and the Muslim world. However, the main interest and the intensive studies of these scholars were mainly related to the first centuries of Islamic civilization (up to 12th and 13th AD centuries). Prof. Fuad Sezgin, in his comprehensive survey of Islamic Science titled “Geschichte des Arabischen Schrifttums (1967-2000)” concentrated on the scientific heritage of the first four or five centuries. [Sezgin’s only exception was his interest in Ottoman cartography and geography literature].
However, Arabic and Islamic scientific heritage was not limited to this period. Scholars, scientists and their collaborators continued to produce works of importance through the following centuries. However, unfortunately, these works did not attract enough academic interest and were considered worthless.
Whereas, in 15th and 16th centuries, Islamic scientific heritage witnessed advancements in the fields of astronomy, mathematics and geography as well as many other disciplines. Two large observatories, one in Samarqand (15th century) and the other in Istanbul (16th century) were centers of scientific advancement.
This period, which witnessed the abundance of scientific works in Arabic, had also witnessed the rise of Persian and Turkish languages as vernacular and as scientific media. Meanwhile this period was when scientific growth in Europe led up to what has been labeled as a scientific revolution. Muslim scholars started to follow the results of the scientific progress in Europe as early as the 16th century. Therefore, there was a compelling reason for shedding light on the neglected period of six centuries. The method for conducting comprehensive and extensive research and documentation of various scientific activities and works was the Ottoman framework.
The Ottoman Empire (700-1342 / 1299-1922) that was founded as a small principality at the turn of the fourteenth century gradually expanded into the lands of the Byzantine Empire in both Anatolia and the Balkans, while its sovereignty reached the Arab world after 1517. It became the most powerful state of the Islamic world covering a vast area extending from Central Europe to the Indian Ocean. The Ottomans preserved their Empire by keeping the balances of power with Europe. Following its defeat in the First World War, the Ottoman Empire ended in 1922.
During its six hundred year long history, Ottoman science emerged and developed on the foundations of the scientific legacy and the institutions of pre-Ottoman Seljukid period in Anatolian cities, and benefited from the activities of scholars who came from Egypt, Syria, Iran, and Turkistan, which were the most important scientific and cultural centers of the time.
The 18 volumes of History of Ottoman Scientific Literature that were prepared and published in the last three decades revealed enormous amount of information about scientific activities in the six centuries of the Ottoman era. This paper attempts to present the statistical findings of surveying 4897 authors, 4681 works and big numbers of manuscripts. The information gathered are presented analytically in tables. The paper aims to demonstrate the different aspects of authorship in various scientific disciplines (astronomy, mathematics, geography, medicine, etc.) and the interaction between scholars from different parts of the Ottoman Empire within its European, Anatolian and Arabic provinces. It also sheds light on the first contacts with modern science emerging in the West Europe.
Prof. William R. Shea
"Enlarging our Historiography"
..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
The very rapid spread of Islam following the Prophet's death 1632 marks a turning point in the history of Europe and the Middle East. Various areas dominated by Islam had a large population of Jews, Christians and pagans, and with a marvelous power of assimilation, Islam quickly created the necessary conditions for the rediscovery of Greek mathematics and science and, in the course of time, added much from its own. The unifying principle was the Arabic language in the form use in the Koran, a role similar to the one of Sanskrit in India or medieval Latin in Western Europe The most vigorous scientific activity of the early Middle Ages lay in the lands of the Prophet, whether in medicine, mathematics or astronomy. Islam also made original contributions to navigation in the Indian Ocean and, since the direction of the Mecca was important for religious reasons, to the development of geopolitical co-ordinates. The Arab contribution to mechanics and engineering is of towering importance, and the historiography of science has now been greatly enhanced by the critical edition and English translation of the corpus of Al-Isfizārī that will be discussed at this conference.
Prof. Charles Burnett
"Arabica veritas: Europeans' Search for "Truth" in Islamic culture the Middle Ages"
..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
What did Medieval Western Europeans mean when they appealed to the 'Arabic truth'? What could works in the Arabic language (supposedly written by Muslims) contribute to Western civilization? This presentation explores the apparent contradiction between Christians' outright condemnation of Islam and their wholesale embracing of the products of Islamic culture.
Prof. George Saliba
"The Pervasive Use of Arabic/Islamic Sources in Renaissance Europe and Thereafter"
..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
This illustrated talk focuses on the works of European scientists who used Islamic/Arabic scientific sources to support and expand their own science. The material covered here is much more extensive than the texts I discussed in my book: Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance (MIT 2011, paper) in which I focused on the evidence related to astronomical theories. This talk will go well beyond theory, beyond theoretical texts to touch on technological and instrument production, and beyond the renaissance to explore the works of the seventeenth-century European scientists and beyond who used Arabic scientific sources in a variety of fields and annotated them with their own hands, all in the process of producing their own European pre-modern science.
Prof. David King
"Science in the Service of Islam"
..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Everybody knows that Muslims pray five times a day facing Mecca, but few have ever asked the question: how did they do this over the centuries? One can only begin to answer this question if one knows that there were two distinct traditions of astronomy in Islamic civilisation: the folk tradition favoured by the legal scholars, and the mathematical tradition practiced by the scientists. The speaker will show extracts from medieval manuscripts reflecting prayer-times and sacred direction in the two traditions. It is also of interest to address the question why Muslim ritual is distinguished by these features; here non-standard practices often supply significant clues.
In the folk astronomical tradition, finding the prayer-times was part of simple time-reckoning by day using shadow-schemes and using the lunar mansions by night, and finding the qibla involved a sacred geography in which the world was divided into sectors around the sacred Ka’ba, each associated with a qibla defined by the risings and settings of the sun and various qibla stars.
In the mathematical tradition, the regulation of the prayer-times took place within the broader context of astronomical timekeeping by the sun and stars using extensive astronomical tables and complicated instruments, and the determination of the qibla within the framework of mathematical geography, longitudes and latitudes, and applied mathematics.
This dichotomy of science in Islam is generally overlooked. Nevertheless, it is essential to an understanding of how science gained a firm footing in Muslim society, flourished for eight centuries, and then declined. These applications of science in the service of religion had no parallel in the history of world civilisation, and they gave rise to many new inventions.
An unhappy development: In 1977 P. Crone & M. Cook published their unfortunate book Hagarism, which they later repudiated. Nevertheless, some of their mistakes generated the various false and absurd notions now circulating about the early history of Islam and notably about the institutions of the five prayers and the sacred direction. These false notions could circulate freely because of the general ignorance about early Muslim practice. The speaker will briefly address the most recent misinterpretations (by Gibson, Meus and Holland), and urge that the best means to confront them is to be informed about what the Muslims actually did do.
Prof. Mohamed El-Gomati
“From Ibn al-Haytham to Ahmed Zewail: A Millennium of Contributions to Imaging Devices”
..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Over several centuries, optical imaging devices, ranging from the simplest of all, the pinhole camera (often referred to as the camera obscura) to the recent development of the electron microscope have demonstrated huge leaps in both our understanding and capabilities. They also are tools that continue to bring joy and happiness to many. In their essence, these imaging tools share the same fundamental properties. Whether physical ray optics that that is used (as in the case of the pinhole camera) or a beam of electrons (as in electron microscopy), their paths to form an image are governed by the same physical laws and operate in similar ways. The early and primitive development of the camera obscura will be used as an example to identify some of these laws and relationships and a reference to their inventors and developers over a millennium, or perhaps more, will also be provided. The chronology of developments as well as the key figures behind such inventions will clearly show how interdependent advancements in science and technology are as well as to highlight, as in this case, the continued use of some old inventions in many of the advancements being made in today's world.
Prof. Siegfried Zielinski
“Ibn al-Haytham's Concept of Vision - A Media Archaeological Approach”
..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Without doubt Ibn al-Haythams Book of Optics is one of the most important contributions for the history of visual perception and the construction of images. From a media archaeological point of view three aspects are especially exciting, which I shall explore in my presentation closer:
- the highly experimental/empirical approach of al-Haytham's concept of vision
- its neurological implications
- its modernity as a concept of generating and reflecting images.
In the line-up of model constructions up to the present I shall locate al Haytham's contribution to optics and visual perception almost exactly at the mid point, both with regard to its history/chronology as well as the model's special significance as an early modern concept
Prof. Charles M. Falco
“Ibn al-Haytham and His Influence on Post-Medieval Western Culture”
..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Born in Basra in 965, but doing most of his work in Cairo's Al-Azhar Mosque, Ibnal-Haytham (Latinized as Alhazen or Alhacen) wrote nearly one hundred works on topics as diverse as optics, poetry and politics. For nearly four hundred years his treatment of a particular geometry of reflection from flat and curved surfaces has been known as "Alhazen's problem," and today al-Haytham is primarily known for his writings on geometrical optics, astronomy, and mathematics. However, as I will discuss, with his landmark seven-volume Kitāb al-Manāzir [Book of Optics], published sometime between 1028 and 1038, al-Haytham made intellectual contributions that subsequently were incorporated throughout the core of post-Medieval Western culture. His seminal work on the human vision system initiated what remains an unbroken chain of development that connects 21st century optical scientists with the 11th century Ibn al-Haytham. The noted science historian, David Lindberg, wrote that "Alhazen was undoubtedly the most significant figure in the history of optics between antiquity and the seventeenth century." Impressive and accurate as that characterization is, our recent discoveries show that it significantly understates the impact that al-Haytham had on areas as wide-ranging as the theology, literature, art, and science of Europe.
Acknowledgements: This work done in collaboration with David Graves and David Hockney
Dr Saira Malik
“Kamal al-Din al-Farisi on (the) Optics: In the Footsteps of al-Hasan Ibn al-Haytham?”
..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Kamal al-Din al-Farisi (d. ~1320CE, Tabriz) is the only known commentator in Arabic of Ibn al-Haytham’s principal work, ‘Optics’ – an important work in the history of science – particularly in the history of the physical sciences. Although, Kamal al-Din’s work uses Ibn al-Haytham’s writings in the ‘Optics’ as a starting point, Kamal al-Din departs significantly from Ibn al-Haytham’s composition – in terms of structure, content and concept. In this paper, I give an overview of some of these differences.
Prof. Salim Al-Hassani
“An Introduction on Automatic Machines in Muslim Civilisation”
..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
This contribution reviews the rise and development of automatic machines within Muslim civilisation. It looks at how inventors from the Muslim civilisation progressively transformed achievements of previous cultures (e.g. ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, Persia, China and India) and how they developed new sophisticated time measuring devices, irrigation machines and entertainment devices. Unfortunately, there is a gap in the educational curricula of about 1000 years overlooking the contributions of non-European cultures such as Chinese, Indian, Persian and Muslim. This anomaly needs correcting.
Few examples of automatic machines will be reviewed using 3D animations created from descriptions in primary sources using modern engineering graphics. These include: Caliph Harun al-Rashid's clock that he gifted to Charlemagne, Ibnal-Haytham's novel water clock, and some machines of Al-Muradi in Al-Andalus,
Al-Jazari and Taqi al-Din in Turkey, and the clocks of Ridhwan al-Sa'ati in Damascus, Bou-Inaniya and Al-Qarawiyyin clocks in Fez.
It is hoped that the story of the rise of machines in the Muslim Civilisation will not only fill a gap in the educational curricula and the public literature, but will also inspire the succeeding generations to derive positive lessons from the past to build a prosperous, sustainable future that appreciates and celebrates diversity of humanity.
Prof. Andrea Bernardoni
“Traces and Connection with Muslim Scientific Heritage in Leonardo Da Vinci Manuscripts”
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Leonardo da Vinci is not a typical author. He is not a scholar, he did not frequent university. As a self-taught man, he became one of the main protagonists during the 15th century engineering-artistic cultural environment; a period in which Italian and European engineers started writing and drawing manuscripts about their professional activity.
During his career, Leonardo studied and developed topics in engineering, arts and science. In each of these areas, it is possible find some evidence of Arabian tradition echoes. In the case of technology, we see several instances of hydraulic machines, chemical apparatus and mechanical devices, with possible connections to the Muslim heritage. These are not gleaned from known sources, but come from a technological context which had arisen during the late European Middle age thanks to commercial and colonial exchange between Middle East and the West.
We have a different case for scientific knowledge, which is transmitted through exchange of books. Here we find several discussions in optics and in meteorology that trace back to authors like Al-Kindi and Al-Hazen In the case of anatomy of the human body, we find a direct “dialogue” with the Canon of medicine by Avicenna, published and commented on several time by Italian publishers between 15th and 16th.
In the beginning of 16th century, Leonardo had a sort of fascination for Muslim culture. He considered the possibility of moving to the court of Sultan Beyazid II offering some technological devices. He also proposed to him a futuristic bridge over the Bosporus, but he was not successful. but without any consequences.
Prof. Julio Samso
“Dunash ibn Tamim and the Armillary Sphere”
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Dunash (or Dunas) b. Tamim b. Ya'qub al-Isra’ili al-Qarawi was a Tunisian scholar, born in Qayrawan and disciple of the well known physician and philosopher Ishaq ibn Sulayman al-Isra’ili (ca. 858-955). He worked as a physician of the Fatimid caliphs and wrote, in 955-6, an Arabic commentary on the Sefer Yezirah, an ancient Hebrew esoteric book on cosmogony. In it Dunash mentions that he dedicated a book on astronomy to Hasday b. Shaprut (ca. 905-975), the physician of the Umayyad Caliph 'Abd al-Rahman III (912-961), composed of three parts dealing with hay’a, mathematical astronomy and astrology. The same source mentions another astronomical work, on the “structure of the spheres” (hay’at al-aflak?) dedicated to the Fatimid Caliph al-Mansur Ismail b. al-Qa’im (946-953). Recently Taro Mimura has shown that the Latin translation of De orbe, attributed to Masha’allah, is actually a work on hay’a by Dunash ibn Tamim.
He is also the author of a Risalat al-'amal bi-dhat al-halaq, dedicated to the shaykh Abul-Hasan Muhammad b. al-Husayn – probably the governor of Mahdiyya - as a result of Dunash’s visit to his residence, during which they both talked about astronomical instruments like the astrolabe and Dunash showed his knowledge of Eastern astronomical instruments such as the munbatah (probably mubattakh, “melon-shaped”) and huti (“fish-shaped”) astrolabes, to which he added the bayda (al-Battani’s instrument?), and the armillary sphere.
This treatise on the armillary sphere was written to accompany a real instrument built for Muhammad b. al-Husayn. It has been preserved in only one manuscript (Istanbul Ayasofya 4861), copied in 613/1217. It describes an analogical computer, like the astrolabe, not an observational instrument. The treatise is divided into two parts: 1) Introduction and 2) a collection of 43 applications of the armillary instrument. He adds to this list lengthy digressions concerning topics which are not related to the use of the armillary sphere, or in which the use of the instrument is only a visual help to understand the theory involved. In some cases these digressions are cosmological.
In my oral exposition I will try to analyse the contents of the treatise and show that Dunash’s knowledge of spherical astronomy was rather limited.
Prof. Glen Cooper
“Astrolabes and Zijes as Tools of Education and the Transmission of Scientific Knowledge from Islamic Civilization”
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Islamic astrolabes and astronomical tables (zijes) were improvements on Greek antecedents, and were employed both to educate non-specialists about basic astronomical concepts, and to enable faster calculations of planetary positions and other astrological parameters. Both astrolabes and tables encode a complex trigonometry, so the user needs merely to turn a dial, aligning certain marks and reading off the result from the astrolabe, or simply to perform basic arithmetic on the tables to derive planetary positions. In addition, the astrolabe was an important vehicle for the transmission of mathematics and astronomy to Europe, since not only was it a symbol of Muslim pre-eminence in science for medieval Europeans, but it also inspired them to acquire the mathematics and astronomy required to use it. Furthermore, one of the most significant engineering advances of medieval Europe, the mechanical clock, is shown to have been derived partly from the technology of the astrolabe. Lastly, astrolabes and zijes are useful in modern history of science courses, to help students grasp the technical sophistication of Muslim civilization. Three example assignments and workshops are discussed. 1) Students use tables to calculate selected features of their birth charts (positions of sun, Mars and Ascendant). 2) Students construct an astrolabe from scratch, using compass, pencil, card stock paper, and an acetate sheet. (Professor Saliba made me do this in graduate school, and it was one of the most important exercises I ever did). And 3) Students learn how to use the astrolabe for time-keeping and selected astrological calculations.
Prof. Karen Pinto
“Teaching Islamic Technology to American Undergraduates: The Importance of 1001 Inventions as a Means to Dispel Islamophobia”
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Importance of 1001 Inventions as a Means to Dispel Islamophobia In a time of great stress between the Western and Muslim worlds it is important to provide students with an understanding of global culture and the contributions that the Muslims make to it. Classes on Islamic Civilization and Technology enable us to break down negative western monolithic impressions of Islam and Islamic history by familiarizing students with the richness and diversity of Islamic history and culture and the advances of science and technology in the medieval period. Advances upon which Western Civilization built to leap frog technologically into the modern period. Too often Muslim scholars, scientists, and inventors are not credited in the western canon for their contributions. 1001 Inventions is an important contribution that fills the void of much-needed textbooks on the subject.
Mr. Ahmed Salim
"Opportunities and Challenges for the Global Promotion of Islamic Science Heritage - The 1001 Inventions Experience"
..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
In this talk, Ahmed Salim will explore the challenges and opportunities facing the global promotion of Islamic Science Heritage through the ten year experiences of the "1001 Inventions” organisation. The talk will explore practical experiences through educational campaigns and transmedia productions highlighting success stories and lessons learned.
With growing divides and mounting social pressures around the world, the talk will highlight 1001 Inventions efforts to harness the power of science and education to promote mutual respect and foster tolerance and empathy that are needed today more than ever while sparking interest in science and innovation. The talk will conclude with addressing the key challenges facing the organisation today while presenting the unique opportunities ahead necessitating collaborative efforts to further bring the remarkable contributions of Islamic science heritage into the public domain.
.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
"An Overview of Ottoman Scientific Literature"
..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Arabic and Islamic scientific heritage has been the subject of academic interest for decades. The first generation of western scholars was mainly interested in what would be known as the “Golden Age” of Islamic civilization, which meant the first Abbasid period. The pioneers of these historical studies took interest in researching, studying and publishing scientific manuscripts related to the illustrious figures of this “Golden Age”.
The leading studies by Orientalists were emulated and carried on by generations from the Arab and the Muslim world. However, the main interest and the intensive studies of these scholars were mainly related to the first centuries of Islamic civilization (up to 12th and 13th AD centuries). Prof. Fuad Sezgin, in his comprehensive survey of Islamic Science titled “Geschichte des Arabischen Schrifttums (1967-2000)” concentrated on the scientific heritage of the first four or five centuries. [Sezgin’s only exception was his interest in Ottoman cartography and geography literature].
However, Arabic and Islamic scientific heritage was not limited to this period. Scholars, scientists and their collaborators continued to produce works of importance through the following centuries. However, unfortunately, these works did not attract enough academic interest and were considered worthless.
Whereas, in 15th and 16th centuries, Islamic scientific heritage witnessed advancements in the fields of astronomy, mathematics and geography as well as many other disciplines. Two large observatories, one in Samarqand (15th century) and the other in Istanbul (16th century) were centers of scientific advancement.
This period, which witnessed the abundance of scientific works in Arabic, had also witnessed the rise of Persian and Turkish languages as vernacular and as scientific media. Meanwhile this period was when scientific growth in Europe led up to what has been labeled as a scientific revolution. Muslim scholars started to follow the results of the scientific progress in Europe as early as the 16th century. Therefore, there was a compelling reason for shedding light on the neglected period of six centuries. The method for conducting comprehensive and extensive research and documentation of various scientific activities and works was the Ottoman framework.
The Ottoman Empire (700-1342 / 1299-1922) that was founded as a small principality at the turn of the fourteenth century gradually expanded into the lands of the Byzantine Empire in both Anatolia and the Balkans, while its sovereignty reached the Arab world after 1517. It became the most powerful state of the Islamic world covering a vast area extending from Central Europe to the Indian Ocean. The Ottomans preserved their Empire by keeping the balances of power with Europe. Following its defeat in the First World War, the Ottoman Empire ended in 1922.
During its six hundred year long history, Ottoman science emerged and developed on the foundations of the scientific legacy and the institutions of pre-Ottoman Seljukid period in Anatolian cities, and benefited from the activities of scholars who came from Egypt, Syria, Iran, and Turkistan, which were the most important scientific and cultural centers of the time.
The 18 volumes of History of Ottoman Scientific Literature that were prepared and published in the last three decades revealed enormous amount of information about scientific activities in the six centuries of the Ottoman era. This paper attempts to present the statistical findings of surveying 4897 authors, 4681 works and big numbers of manuscripts. The information gathered are presented analytically in tables. The paper aims to demonstrate the different aspects of authorship in various scientific disciplines (astronomy, mathematics, geography, medicine, etc.) and the interaction between scholars from different parts of the Ottoman Empire within its European, Anatolian and Arabic provinces. It also sheds light on the first contacts with modern science emerging in the West Europe.
Prof. William R. Shea
"Enlarging our Historiography"
..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
The very rapid spread of Islam following the Prophet's death 1632 marks a turning point in the history of Europe and the Middle East. Various areas dominated by Islam had a large population of Jews, Christians and pagans, and with a marvelous power of assimilation, Islam quickly created the necessary conditions for the rediscovery of Greek mathematics and science and, in the course of time, added much from its own. The unifying principle was the Arabic language in the form use in the Koran, a role similar to the one of Sanskrit in India or medieval Latin in Western Europe The most vigorous scientific activity of the early Middle Ages lay in the lands of the Prophet, whether in medicine, mathematics or astronomy. Islam also made original contributions to navigation in the Indian Ocean and, since the direction of the Mecca was important for religious reasons, to the development of geopolitical co-ordinates. The Arab contribution to mechanics and engineering is of towering importance, and the historiography of science has now been greatly enhanced by the critical edition and English translation of the corpus of Al-Isfizārī that will be discussed at this conference.
Prof. Charles Burnett
"Arabica veritas: Europeans' Search for "Truth" in Islamic culture the Middle Ages"
..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
What did Medieval Western Europeans mean when they appealed to the 'Arabic truth'? What could works in the Arabic language (supposedly written by Muslims) contribute to Western civilization? This presentation explores the apparent contradiction between Christians' outright condemnation of Islam and their wholesale embracing of the products of Islamic culture.
Prof. George Saliba
"The Pervasive Use of Arabic/Islamic Sources in Renaissance Europe and Thereafter"
..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
This illustrated talk focuses on the works of European scientists who used Islamic/Arabic scientific sources to support and expand their own science. The material covered here is much more extensive than the texts I discussed in my book: Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance (MIT 2011, paper) in which I focused on the evidence related to astronomical theories. This talk will go well beyond theory, beyond theoretical texts to touch on technological and instrument production, and beyond the renaissance to explore the works of the seventeenth-century European scientists and beyond who used Arabic scientific sources in a variety of fields and annotated them with their own hands, all in the process of producing their own European pre-modern science.
Prof. David King
"Science in the Service of Islam"
..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Everybody knows that Muslims pray five times a day facing Mecca, but few have ever asked the question: how did they do this over the centuries? One can only begin to answer this question if one knows that there were two distinct traditions of astronomy in Islamic civilisation: the folk tradition favoured by the legal scholars, and the mathematical tradition practiced by the scientists. The speaker will show extracts from medieval manuscripts reflecting prayer-times and sacred direction in the two traditions. It is also of interest to address the question why Muslim ritual is distinguished by these features; here non-standard practices often supply significant clues.
In the folk astronomical tradition, finding the prayer-times was part of simple time-reckoning by day using shadow-schemes and using the lunar mansions by night, and finding the qibla involved a sacred geography in which the world was divided into sectors around the sacred Ka’ba, each associated with a qibla defined by the risings and settings of the sun and various qibla stars.
In the mathematical tradition, the regulation of the prayer-times took place within the broader context of astronomical timekeeping by the sun and stars using extensive astronomical tables and complicated instruments, and the determination of the qibla within the framework of mathematical geography, longitudes and latitudes, and applied mathematics.
This dichotomy of science in Islam is generally overlooked. Nevertheless, it is essential to an understanding of how science gained a firm footing in Muslim society, flourished for eight centuries, and then declined. These applications of science in the service of religion had no parallel in the history of world civilisation, and they gave rise to many new inventions.
An unhappy development: In 1977 P. Crone & M. Cook published their unfortunate book Hagarism, which they later repudiated. Nevertheless, some of their mistakes generated the various false and absurd notions now circulating about the early history of Islam and notably about the institutions of the five prayers and the sacred direction. These false notions could circulate freely because of the general ignorance about early Muslim practice. The speaker will briefly address the most recent misinterpretations (by Gibson, Meus and Holland), and urge that the best means to confront them is to be informed about what the Muslims actually did do.
Prof. Mohamed El-Gomati
“From Ibn al-Haytham to Ahmed Zewail: A Millennium of Contributions to Imaging Devices”
..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Over several centuries, optical imaging devices, ranging from the simplest of all, the pinhole camera (often referred to as the camera obscura) to the recent development of the electron microscope have demonstrated huge leaps in both our understanding and capabilities. They also are tools that continue to bring joy and happiness to many. In their essence, these imaging tools share the same fundamental properties. Whether physical ray optics that that is used (as in the case of the pinhole camera) or a beam of electrons (as in electron microscopy), their paths to form an image are governed by the same physical laws and operate in similar ways. The early and primitive development of the camera obscura will be used as an example to identify some of these laws and relationships and a reference to their inventors and developers over a millennium, or perhaps more, will also be provided. The chronology of developments as well as the key figures behind such inventions will clearly show how interdependent advancements in science and technology are as well as to highlight, as in this case, the continued use of some old inventions in many of the advancements being made in today's world.
Prof. Siegfried Zielinski
“Ibn al-Haytham's Concept of Vision - A Media Archaeological Approach”
..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Without doubt Ibn al-Haythams Book of Optics is one of the most important contributions for the history of visual perception and the construction of images. From a media archaeological point of view three aspects are especially exciting, which I shall explore in my presentation closer:
- the highly experimental/empirical approach of al-Haytham's concept of vision
- its neurological implications
- its modernity as a concept of generating and reflecting images.
In the line-up of model constructions up to the present I shall locate al Haytham's contribution to optics and visual perception almost exactly at the mid point, both with regard to its history/chronology as well as the model's special significance as an early modern concept
Prof. Charles M. Falco
“Ibn al-Haytham and His Influence on Post-Medieval Western Culture”
..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Born in Basra in 965, but doing most of his work in Cairo's Al-Azhar Mosque, Ibnal-Haytham (Latinized as Alhazen or Alhacen) wrote nearly one hundred works on topics as diverse as optics, poetry and politics. For nearly four hundred years his treatment of a particular geometry of reflection from flat and curved surfaces has been known as "Alhazen's problem," and today al-Haytham is primarily known for his writings on geometrical optics, astronomy, and mathematics. However, as I will discuss, with his landmark seven-volume Kitāb al-Manāzir [Book of Optics], published sometime between 1028 and 1038, al-Haytham made intellectual contributions that subsequently were incorporated throughout the core of post-Medieval Western culture. His seminal work on the human vision system initiated what remains an unbroken chain of development that connects 21st century optical scientists with the 11th century Ibn al-Haytham. The noted science historian, David Lindberg, wrote that "Alhazen was undoubtedly the most significant figure in the history of optics between antiquity and the seventeenth century." Impressive and accurate as that characterization is, our recent discoveries show that it significantly understates the impact that al-Haytham had on areas as wide-ranging as the theology, literature, art, and science of Europe.
Acknowledgements: This work done in collaboration with David Graves and David Hockney
Dr Saira Malik
“Kamal al-Din al-Farisi on (the) Optics: In the Footsteps of al-Hasan Ibn al-Haytham?”
..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Kamal al-Din al-Farisi (d. ~1320CE, Tabriz) is the only known commentator in Arabic of Ibn al-Haytham’s principal work, ‘Optics’ – an important work in the history of science – particularly in the history of the physical sciences. Although, Kamal al-Din’s work uses Ibn al-Haytham’s writings in the ‘Optics’ as a starting point, Kamal al-Din departs significantly from Ibn al-Haytham’s composition – in terms of structure, content and concept. In this paper, I give an overview of some of these differences.
Prof. Salim Al-Hassani
“An Introduction on Automatic Machines in Muslim Civilisation”
..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
This contribution reviews the rise and development of automatic machines within Muslim civilisation. It looks at how inventors from the Muslim civilisation progressively transformed achievements of previous cultures (e.g. ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, Persia, China and India) and how they developed new sophisticated time measuring devices, irrigation machines and entertainment devices. Unfortunately, there is a gap in the educational curricula of about 1000 years overlooking the contributions of non-European cultures such as Chinese, Indian, Persian and Muslim. This anomaly needs correcting.
Few examples of automatic machines will be reviewed using 3D animations created from descriptions in primary sources using modern engineering graphics. These include: Caliph Harun al-Rashid's clock that he gifted to Charlemagne, Ibnal-Haytham's novel water clock, and some machines of Al-Muradi in Al-Andalus,
Al-Jazari and Taqi al-Din in Turkey, and the clocks of Ridhwan al-Sa'ati in Damascus, Bou-Inaniya and Al-Qarawiyyin clocks in Fez.
It is hoped that the story of the rise of machines in the Muslim Civilisation will not only fill a gap in the educational curricula and the public literature, but will also inspire the succeeding generations to derive positive lessons from the past to build a prosperous, sustainable future that appreciates and celebrates diversity of humanity.
Prof. Andrea Bernardoni
“Traces and Connection with Muslim Scientific Heritage in Leonardo Da Vinci Manuscripts”
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Leonardo da Vinci is not a typical author. He is not a scholar, he did not frequent university. As a self-taught man, he became one of the main protagonists during the 15th century engineering-artistic cultural environment; a period in which Italian and European engineers started writing and drawing manuscripts about their professional activity.
During his career, Leonardo studied and developed topics in engineering, arts and science. In each of these areas, it is possible find some evidence of Arabian tradition echoes. In the case of technology, we see several instances of hydraulic machines, chemical apparatus and mechanical devices, with possible connections to the Muslim heritage. These are not gleaned from known sources, but come from a technological context which had arisen during the late European Middle age thanks to commercial and colonial exchange between Middle East and the West.
We have a different case for scientific knowledge, which is transmitted through exchange of books. Here we find several discussions in optics and in meteorology that trace back to authors like Al-Kindi and Al-Hazen In the case of anatomy of the human body, we find a direct “dialogue” with the Canon of medicine by Avicenna, published and commented on several time by Italian publishers between 15th and 16th.
In the beginning of 16th century, Leonardo had a sort of fascination for Muslim culture. He considered the possibility of moving to the court of Sultan Beyazid II offering some technological devices. He also proposed to him a futuristic bridge over the Bosporus, but he was not successful. but without any consequences.
Prof. Julio Samso
“Dunash ibn Tamim and the Armillary Sphere”
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Dunash (or Dunas) b. Tamim b. Ya'qub al-Isra’ili al-Qarawi was a Tunisian scholar, born in Qayrawan and disciple of the well known physician and philosopher Ishaq ibn Sulayman al-Isra’ili (ca. 858-955). He worked as a physician of the Fatimid caliphs and wrote, in 955-6, an Arabic commentary on the Sefer Yezirah, an ancient Hebrew esoteric book on cosmogony. In it Dunash mentions that he dedicated a book on astronomy to Hasday b. Shaprut (ca. 905-975), the physician of the Umayyad Caliph 'Abd al-Rahman III (912-961), composed of three parts dealing with hay’a, mathematical astronomy and astrology. The same source mentions another astronomical work, on the “structure of the spheres” (hay’at al-aflak?) dedicated to the Fatimid Caliph al-Mansur Ismail b. al-Qa’im (946-953). Recently Taro Mimura has shown that the Latin translation of De orbe, attributed to Masha’allah, is actually a work on hay’a by Dunash ibn Tamim.
He is also the author of a Risalat al-'amal bi-dhat al-halaq, dedicated to the shaykh Abul-Hasan Muhammad b. al-Husayn – probably the governor of Mahdiyya - as a result of Dunash’s visit to his residence, during which they both talked about astronomical instruments like the astrolabe and Dunash showed his knowledge of Eastern astronomical instruments such as the munbatah (probably mubattakh, “melon-shaped”) and huti (“fish-shaped”) astrolabes, to which he added the bayda (al-Battani’s instrument?), and the armillary sphere.
This treatise on the armillary sphere was written to accompany a real instrument built for Muhammad b. al-Husayn. It has been preserved in only one manuscript (Istanbul Ayasofya 4861), copied in 613/1217. It describes an analogical computer, like the astrolabe, not an observational instrument. The treatise is divided into two parts: 1) Introduction and 2) a collection of 43 applications of the armillary instrument. He adds to this list lengthy digressions concerning topics which are not related to the use of the armillary sphere, or in which the use of the instrument is only a visual help to understand the theory involved. In some cases these digressions are cosmological.
In my oral exposition I will try to analyse the contents of the treatise and show that Dunash’s knowledge of spherical astronomy was rather limited.
Prof. Glen Cooper
“Astrolabes and Zijes as Tools of Education and the Transmission of Scientific Knowledge from Islamic Civilization”
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Islamic astrolabes and astronomical tables (zijes) were improvements on Greek antecedents, and were employed both to educate non-specialists about basic astronomical concepts, and to enable faster calculations of planetary positions and other astrological parameters. Both astrolabes and tables encode a complex trigonometry, so the user needs merely to turn a dial, aligning certain marks and reading off the result from the astrolabe, or simply to perform basic arithmetic on the tables to derive planetary positions. In addition, the astrolabe was an important vehicle for the transmission of mathematics and astronomy to Europe, since not only was it a symbol of Muslim pre-eminence in science for medieval Europeans, but it also inspired them to acquire the mathematics and astronomy required to use it. Furthermore, one of the most significant engineering advances of medieval Europe, the mechanical clock, is shown to have been derived partly from the technology of the astrolabe. Lastly, astrolabes and zijes are useful in modern history of science courses, to help students grasp the technical sophistication of Muslim civilization. Three example assignments and workshops are discussed. 1) Students use tables to calculate selected features of their birth charts (positions of sun, Mars and Ascendant). 2) Students construct an astrolabe from scratch, using compass, pencil, card stock paper, and an acetate sheet. (Professor Saliba made me do this in graduate school, and it was one of the most important exercises I ever did). And 3) Students learn how to use the astrolabe for time-keeping and selected astrological calculations.
Prof. Karen Pinto
“Teaching Islamic Technology to American Undergraduates: The Importance of 1001 Inventions as a Means to Dispel Islamophobia”
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Importance of 1001 Inventions as a Means to Dispel Islamophobia In a time of great stress between the Western and Muslim worlds it is important to provide students with an understanding of global culture and the contributions that the Muslims make to it. Classes on Islamic Civilization and Technology enable us to break down negative western monolithic impressions of Islam and Islamic history by familiarizing students with the richness and diversity of Islamic history and culture and the advances of science and technology in the medieval period. Advances upon which Western Civilization built to leap frog technologically into the modern period. Too often Muslim scholars, scientists, and inventors are not credited in the western canon for their contributions. 1001 Inventions is an important contribution that fills the void of much-needed textbooks on the subject.
Mr. Ahmed Salim
"Opportunities and Challenges for the Global Promotion of Islamic Science Heritage - The 1001 Inventions Experience"
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In this talk, Ahmed Salim will explore the challenges and opportunities facing the global promotion of Islamic Science Heritage through the ten year experiences of the "1001 Inventions” organisation. The talk will explore practical experiences through educational campaigns and transmedia productions highlighting success stories and lessons learned.
With growing divides and mounting social pressures around the world, the talk will highlight 1001 Inventions efforts to harness the power of science and education to promote mutual respect and foster tolerance and empathy that are needed today more than ever while sparking interest in science and innovation. The talk will conclude with addressing the key challenges facing the organisation today while presenting the unique opportunities ahead necessitating collaborative efforts to further bring the remarkable contributions of Islamic science heritage into the public domain.
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